Dopamine Manipulation Affects Response Vigor Independently of Opportunity Cost

How fast to work: Response vigor, motivation and tonic dopamine

Reinforcement learning models have long promised to unify computational, psychological and neural accounts of appetitively conditioned behavior. However, the bulk of data on animal conditioning comes from free-operant experiments measuring how fast animals will work for reinforcement. Existing reinforcement learning (RL) models are silent about these tasks, because they lack any notion of vigor...

Opportunity Cost Based Models for Traffic Incident Response Problems

Cooperative vehicle routing problem: an opportunity for cost saving

In this paper, a novel methodology is proposed to solve a cooperative multi-depot vehicle routing problem. We establish a mathematical model for multi-owner VRP in which each owner (i.e. player) manages single or multiple depots. The basic idea consists of offering an option that owners cooperatively manage the VRP to save their costs. We present cooperative game theory techniques for cost savi...

Opportunity Cost Consideration

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The Opportunity Cost of Capital

The opportunity cost of the capital invested in pharmaceutical research and development (R&D) to bring a new drug to market makes up as much as half the total cost. However, the literature on the cost of pharmaceutical R&D is mixed on how, exactly, one should calculate this "hidden" cost. Some authors attempt to adopt models from the field of finance, whereas other prominent authors dismiss thi...